Ciencias de la Educación
Artículo de investigación
Discourse and
sociolinguistic teaching perspectives
Perspectivas de enseñanza discursiva y
sociolingüística
Discurso e perspectivas de ensino sociolinguístico
Marco Antonio Aquino-Rojas II marcoaquino111@hotmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2252-8397 Evelyn Carolina
Macias-Silva I maciasevelyn@hotmail.com https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7593-6952
Correspondencia: maciasevelyn@hotmail.com
*Recibido: 25
junio de 2021 *Aceptado: 31 de julio
de 2021 * Publicado: 31 de agosto de
2021
I.
Magíster en Pedagogía para la enseñanza del inglés como lengua
extranjera, Docente ocasional Escuela Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo,
Riobamba, Ecuador.
II.
Magíster en Enseñanza del Inglés como Idioma Extranjero, Docente en la
Modalidad Extensión de La Escuela Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo, Riobamba,
Ecuador.
Resumen
El
discurso y la reflexión en el proceso de
enseñanza son herramientas que buscan el crecimiento continuo tanto de los
profesores como de los estudiantes, para ello es necesario que el docente
conozca la situación de sus alumnos, tanto escolar como social, y el impacto que
tienen las acciones que toma mediante un enfoque reflexivo y al mismo tiempo
crítico, de esta manera se obtiene una evaluación integral propia con la cual
es posible planificar estrategias que ayuden a corregir problemáticas en la
enseñanza por parte del profesor o en el aprendizaje por parte del alumno,
buscando al mismo tiempo dejar de lado el modelo en el cual solo el docente
puede impartir conocimientos y el alumno únicamente debe someterse a aprender.
Si bien la implementación de la reflexión en los programas de estudios puede
traer varios beneficios para los involucrados en este proceso, es necesario que
primero los profesores se capaciten sobre la reflexión enfocada en la práctica
docente, ya que para su ejecución se requiere conocer factores como la
metodología de cómo aplicarla, sus fases, los cuatro tipos de conocimiento que
implica y sus alcances y limitaciones en la enseñanza.
Palabras clave: Discurso, enseñanza, reflexiva,
enseñanza reflexiva.
Abstract
The
discourse and reflection in the teaching process are tools that seek the
continuous growth of both teachers and students, for this it is necessary that
the teacher knows the situation of their students, both school and social, and
the impact of the actions taken through a reflective approach and at the same
time critical, In this way, a comprehensive evaluation is obtained, with which
it is possible to plan strategies that help to correct problems in teaching on
the part of the teacher or in learning on the part of the student, seeking at
the same time to leave aside the model in which only the teacher can impart
knowledge and the student must only submit to learning. Although the
implementation of reflection in the curricula can bring several benefits for
those involved in this process, it is necessary that teachers are first trained
on reflection focused on teaching practice, since its implementation requires
knowing factors such as the methodology of how to apply it, its phases, the
four types of knowledge it implies and its scope and limitations in teaching.
Keywords: Discourse, teaching,
reflective, reflective teaching.
Resumo
O discurso e a reflexão no processo
de ensino são ferramentas que procuram o crescimento contínuo tanto de professores como de alunos, para isso é necessário que o professor conheça a situação dos seus alunos, tanto escolástica como social, e o impacto das acções que eles empreendem através de uma abordagem reflexiva e crítica ao mesmo tempo, Desta forma, obtém-se uma avaliação
abrangente, com a qual é possível planear estratégias que ajudam a corrigir problemas no ensino por
parte do professor ou na aprendizagem por parte do aluno, procurando ao mesmo tempo deixar de lado o modelo em que só o professor pode transmitir conhecimentos e o aluno só deve submeter-se à aprendizagem. Embora a implementação da reflexão nos
currículos possa trazer vários benefícios para os envolvidos neste processo, é necessário que os professores sejam primeiro formados em reflexão centrada na prática
pedagógica, uma vez que a sua
implementação requer o conhecimento de factores como a metodologia
de aplicação, as suas
fases, os quatro tipos de conhecimentos
envolvidos e o seu alcance
e limitações no ensino.
Palavras-chave: Discurso, ensino, reflexivo, ensino
reflexivo.
Introduction
In general, in Latin America, despite the efforts of
local governments, the teaching and learning of at least one language other
than Spanish is still a challenge in professional training, either due to
difficulties or lack of tools for its incorporation into the curricula,
preventing graduates from having a command of a foreign language (Hernández
Pedro, 2012).
In Ecuador, regulations have been issued to improve
the competence not only of teachers but also of students and in the curriculum.
The government declared that evaluation should be holistic and an ongoing
process (Ministerio de Educación,
2012a), and attempts have been made to implement tools to promote new
structures in English language teaching, but due to a lack of continuity or
follow-up, these tools have not been evaluated to verify their impact. Despite
this, efforts to provide more training to teachers in the
education system to improve their language skills is a fundamental step
in the search for progress in the process of teaching English (Peña Ledesma,
2019).
As for teachers, the government conducted the TOEFL
test in 2012. The results reported that a high percentage were at a level that
needed to be improved. Since then, the government signed agreements with
universities and international organizations to initiate an exchange program.
Teachers who could access those programs had to pass a test provided by the
education authorities. Through that program, 826 received training not only in
pedagogical practices, but also in improving their competence,
the goal was to prepare 5,000 teachers. In 2015, there were 500 teachers
registered to take the TOEFL exam, the passing score set by the authorities was
87 (Ministerio de Educación,
2015). Another measure taken was the establishment of standards for teachers (Ministerio de Educación, 2012b)
which are similar to those promoted by the Teaching of English to Speakers of
Other Languages (TESOL, 2020).
As for the students, no tests have been applied to
know the level of the students, however, there are
International Baccalaureate (IB) programs in which both (teachers and students)
are tested annually. The national education authorities set a schedule that
includes English from the second grade of the basic year,
it started in 2016 in the highlands. The expected level of students upon
graduation is B1 and to meet that offer there should be 7000 teachers (Ministerio de Educación, 2015).
On the other hand, for higher education in April
2016, the Council of Higher Education (CES) in the Academic Regime Regulations,
established that students in third-level, undergraduate degree courses must
achieve a B2 level, which is considered upper-intermediate (Consejo
de Educación Superior, 2016). The standards set for
teachers also include standards to be achieved as part of lessons, and as for
students, these are aligned with the Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages (Council of Europe, 2008). The requirement of this level in the
foreign language for higher education is given because it is expected that
graduates have the ability to understand complex texts related to their area of
specialization and a certain degree of fluency when expressing themselves in
English, so it must be guaranteed within the curriculum a percentage of hours
for the foreign language which must be of quality. (Ministerio de Educación Nacional
de Colombia, 2005).
Another component that has been revised and improved
has been the English as a Foreign Language (EFL; Ministerio
de Educación, 2015) curriculum, now including
elements of Content Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) and Communicative
Language Teaching (CLT). The purpose is that students have meaningful
activities to increase their competence, however, including foreign language as
a subject within the curriculum has not been a total solution to the problem
since the study of foreign language being limited to only a few hours, or the
implementation of language schools or voluntary courses over the years have
proven to be insufficient measures (Chávez Zambrano, M.X., Saltos
Vivas, M. A. & Saltos Dueñas, C.M., 2017).
Methodology
This research has a bibliographic approach,
it is based on the search, compilation, analysis, critique and interpretation
of information from secondary printed or digital sources. What was sought is to
know and clearly define the discourse and reflective teaching, the current
situation in the country, the importance and probable consequences for those
involved in the educational process through the review of bibliographic
sources, raising concerns in order to guide the collection of information in a
way that contributes significantly both to the development of the research and
to the personal opinion of each author on the research topic.
Results
and Discussion
Despite all these changes and improvements, the level of student
proficiency remains low, as reported by Education First (2019), Ecuador's level
is very low, this raises the question what is missing
in the Ecuadorian curriculum? Or what can teachers do to improve their teaching
practices? Knowing that there have been no studies that
collate the current curriculum with teaching practices.
For the first question, there may be nothing missing, the problem may be
rooted in other circumstances such as poor nutrition, limited access to
resources, or community and family situations that require attention. Nutrition
has been identified as a major problem by UNESCO as its impact on education is
undeniable. Resources vary in form and origin, can be digital or physical, and
serve to enrich lessons. On the other hand, community problems can be about
drugs, sexual harassment or alcohol, the same problems can be found in families
added to physical or psychological abuse (UNESCO, 2015), these problems have
been aggravated due to the pandemic and quarantine that the population is
currently living (UNESCO, 2020).
In order to reduce the impact of the pandemic in 2020, a course called
"Teaching English in times of Covid-19. Modality and
tools" in which more than 200 English teachers participated with speakers
of great experience in teaching. The objective of the course was to
strengthen foreign language instruction in teachers through presentations
focused on the technological tools that are used in times of pandemic, the same
that allow the effective application of English reinforcement at the levels of
General Basic Education and High School (Ministerio
de Educación, 2020).
Regarding the second question, what can teachers do to improve their
classes? First you should know that learning the mother tongue or a second
language is a procedure full of difficulties that takes time, this can cause
several problems in the student as anxiety and frustration since the objective
of communication is to transmit information correctly, effectively and
appropriately (Macias, 2017). In addition to these problems certain students
may suffer from speech or learning disorders such as dyslexia, scolalia, dysprosody, among
others, which directly affect both writing and speaking of the language whether
native or foreign (Cevallos Vélez,
K. G., Palma Cedeño, M. A, Cevallos Vélez, K. M. & Baqueza Ponce,
G.V., 2020), for cases like these is that teachers should have sufficient
skills to handle these situations.
Powell and Kusuma-Powell (2011) recommended getting to know their
students and stated that it can be a difficult and challenging task, moreover,
the process is compounded if students have problems with school work. They
added that teachers should know information such as circles of friends and family
background and argued that researchers are paying attention to this issue. This
should be a necessity in Ecuador because it is a megadiverse country with
various communities, each of them have their own customs, beliefs and sometimes
their second language (L2) is Spanish and they will study English as a third
language. Because there are differences between the regions (coast, highlands,
amazon and islands) teachers should also know that context to better adapt to
each community, this in the case of teachers working in a place where they were
not born or raised.
Another recommendation will be to reflect on their lessons
which means that after the lesson they should reflect on what they could
do differently, or what worked and what didn't work, and perhaps list possible
causes for the failure of the plan, however, this process of reflection and
critique takes time. The Cambridge English Dictionary (2020) defines reflection
as "a sign of the outcome of something" and as "serious and
careful thought". Singh et al. (2019) reported a review of the concept of
reflection and summarised that the focus of other
researchers is on the "relationship between research theory/knowledge and
practice" (p. 455), this was taken from research conducted from 1976 to
2019, however, the concept dates back to 1904 (Dewey, cited in Gore, 1987).
Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1999, cited in Singh et al., 2019) considered
four types of knowledge to reflect on: practical wisdom, technical knowledge,
critical reflection and reflexivity. Most teachers seek knowledge by
interacting with others at conferences, workshops or even chatting over
lunchtime, they combine knowledge for practices with technical or instrumental
knowledge gleaned from research and can use these to improve their teaching practices.
The authors believe that teachers convert research into checklists, strategies
or tips to apply directly to their lesson design, they
further concluded that there is a belief that knowing more makes lessons
effective (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999 cited in Singh et al., 2019).
On the other hand, practical wisdom can be considered as the method
created by the teacher in practice, it is said to have been transmitted orally
from teachers to teachers. This type of knowledge usually involves the
elaboration of material so the authors stated "Teachers invent knowledge
in action and make this knowledge explicit to others through deliberation and
discussion...as mere anecdote, lunchtime stories, or coffee
conversations." (Singh et al., 2019, p. 456).
For Gore (1987), the term reflective teaching "is used to convey
different meanings and for different purposes." (p. 33). This author noted
that reflection must be present if teachers are aligned with continuous growth.
Gore used Dewey's definition of reflection which focuses on inquiry, attitudes,
and skills, he further noted that some prerequisites
to action are open-mindedness, responsibility, and wholeness. He added that, in
teaching, the concept can involve ethical, moral and political principles.
Another important element in teaching is sociolinguistics, which studies
the relationship between language and society including language variation and
learners' attitudes towards language (Hudson, 1996). The same author indicated
that it may refer to the effect of culture on language, or even the way people
use that language during social exchanges. The social components that may be
considered are: class, age, gender and ethnicity; during social contexts, the
study may be extended to cultural norms, behavioural
expectations and the utterances people use in particular situations.
There is also the discourse, which in the classroom should be the
product of consensus, of the flow of the other, but not of the imposition of
rules. This avoids the position that one member is superior, but that there is
equality among all participants, that is, there must be consideration on the
part of the teacher towards the other to whom he/she addresses, giving value to
the discourse and thus having an education in which everyone possesses
knowledge, thus avoiding the idea that education is the donation of knowledge,
with this relationship not only the students are the ones who learn but also
the teacher. Therefore, it is understood that the discourse that should be
promoted should be dialogue in order to leave behind the culture of silence
which has been imposed because the teacher is seen as the only valid subject of
knowledge (Herrera Díaz, T., 2008).
To find out teachers' perspectives on the topic of reflection and
interpret their social interaction in two different Whatsapp
groups, two questions were sent to two groups of teachers, these belong to one Whatsapp group. There were a total of 55 Ecuadorian
teachers of English working in institutions from primary school to higher level
institutions, all with experience in teaching EFL.
The questions were: (1) is there time for reflection after class? (2)
Will the teacher's reflection be useful in a class he/she has taught and will
not repeat later? The results indicated that out of the total 55, only four
responded to the first question. Two of them reported that they sometimes
reflected and sometimes did not. One reported that he did not do so because of
lack of time. The other did not mention the reason, but added that it depends
on the level of competence of the learners and the topic. Three of them
considered reflection as a learner activity. One of them mentioned that it does
not encourage reflection. Another said that it has to be a planned activity
according to the topic. The last one said that it can be a good warm-up task.
One of them mentioned that she did reflect after class to improve in future
sessions.
Considering the teachers' views and the concepts provided by Singh et
al. (2019), it can be inferred that they refer to reflection as the concept of
practical wisdom. This may be due to lack of time or more follow-up questions,
furthermore, none of them reported matching their practices in light of theory
or the use of research in designing their lessons nor
in reflection after class. The teachers' responses may also coincide with
Gore's assumption that the term reflective teaching can be viewed from
different perspectives and for different purposes (1987).
This can be a starting point for modifying curricula and adding
reflection in teacher training programs to motivate reflection on the four
types of knowledge involved in teaching as mentioned in Singh et al. (2019) and
in Gore (1987), the latter not only referring to the practical uses of
reflection but also to the moral valuation it implies. However, it should be
noted that in Ecuador there is a lack of research regarding the use of
reflection to improve teaching practice, the methodology to apply it, training
on how to do it, the analysis of teachers' reflections, the phases it can
include and its implications in teaching
Authors such as Kolb (1984) considered reflection as a way for learners
to communicate learned material, this author pointed out that it can move from
a concrete experience to a conceptual one. Mezirow (2009) contributed to this
theme by adding the concept of non-reflective tasks, for this author it is
"any habitual or thoughtful human action without reflection" (p.
104). He classified reflection into direct and critical. The
former being a kind of self-evaluation, the latter combines the evaluation of
the nature and consequence of any person's actions, as well as the context of
the action.
A study conducted in Iran (Avarzamani & Farahian, 2019) concluded that reflective writing is a
higher order thinking task and that EFL learners did
not reflect in the expected way, but merely reported daily actions and basic
understanding of the topic being reflected upon. Students indicated that the
main reason for this practice was their low level of proficiency. The authors
also interviewed the teachers to determine the reasons for the students' poor
reflection, agreed with the students regarding low competence, and added that
the students needed more training and feedback.
Reflective teaching will contribute to the teacher's professional
development, the reflective and critical approach, which is based on the
exploration of the teaching process, will allow the follow-up in the
construction of didactic theories taking as a starting point the available
knowledge, skills and experiences (Richards and Lockhart, 1998). As for the
learner, one has that the benefits of reflection can be of two types: firstly,
it will help learners to be more critical of their actions,
secondly, it can improve students' writing, which is a difficult skill to
master as most teachers focus on the product and not the process. Authors such
as Harmer (2007) suggest following the process of brainstorming, drafting,
revising, editing, and publishing.
Conclusions
In general, reflection seeks to understand both the
beliefs and thoughts that underlie the decisions of teachers, they should
objectively analyze the efficiency, validity and quality of their own work and
thus reflect critically on what is concluded, all with the sole purpose of
making corrections that they consider relevant or implement initiatives when
these are necessary through previously planned strategies. In addition, the
evaluation should not be only towards them but also measuring the effect that
their teaching generates in the students so that the impact of the actions to
be implemented covers the problems of all those involved in the teaching
process.
Since the government has made many efforts to
improve EFL in Ecuador, and the results are still low, including reflection in
the curriculum of undergraduate programs for pre-service and in-service
teachers may be an option to improve proficiency and meet the standards. If
teachers are trained to reflect, they can apply reflection as a strategy to
improve student writing. However, they should be cautious because of the level
of the students.
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